Generalizations

One section that I thought was interesting in Epstein’s text was the section on generalizations. Individuals generalize when they conclude a claim about a collection of ideas, which is called the population, from a statement about one of the ideas, which is called the sample. Additionally, when individuals make a general claim the conclusion to an idea it can be called a generalization. Just about everyone generalizes on a daily basis. I think that this is interesting because this is done without knowing and is not thought and planned out. After taking this class, I was able to see that concepts like these are used in everyday life. Now that I know these concepts, I can not only apply them, but better educate others who might not know how to make a better argument or may not know how to communicate something effectively. It is times like these where I feel grateful for being fortunate enough to have a good education behind me.

Favorites and Least Favorites about Comm41

One of my favorite things about this class was that I was required to do the work on my own. Granted it was very hard at times to balance going to class, doing other homework, and going to work, it was nice to know that I did not have to go on campus to complete a homework assignment or walk to class for lecture for this particular course.  If I wanted to, which I did most of the time, I did the work in the comfort of my own home while I was waiting for dinner to be cooked or just had to focus on completing the assignments for the week. I did not really enjoy doing the group projects because it was very difficult to collaborate for an online class however it was doable. Maybe one improvement that could be made would be to take the projects and make smaller and only assign one other person to work on the project with you because it was difficult at times to collaborate with a group of four other students.

What I have learned throughout the semester...

There were so many different things that I had learned in this class throughout the entire semester that I do not even know where to begin. I think the most important things that I know I will use from now on is how to have a good argument. Before, I would just bring up an argument or participate in one because I might have felt passionate about the issue. Sometimes I would not know how to support my argument or phrase it in a way that made it sound good and would cause the other individual to respond in a positive way. Now I know that I must have support before getting into an argument because without it, it does not make me look good if I argue with a point that is not valid or strong. This class made me realize that details are also key to communication because without them, it is very hard to get your point across.

Criteria for Cause and Effect

One concept that I found interesting in Chapter 15 of Epstein’s text was the criteria for cause and effect. First and foremost, the cause and effect of the argument must have occurred and must be true, otherwise this concept cannot be applied. Second, the cause must come before the effect and cannot be reversed. It is also not possible for the cause to be true and the effect to be false (and vice versa). Additionally, “the cause makes a difference” (pg 307). In other words, if the cause had not occurred in the past, there would not be an effect resulting in no cause in the first place. Finally, the last necessary factor is that “there is no common cause” (pg 307). All of these need to be applicable to the argument in the current situation otherwise the concept of cause and effect cannot be used and applied in the scenario.

Mission Critical Website

Along with the Cause and Effect website, the Mission Critical website was another outside source that was extremely useful because it had so much valuable information on just about every topic we had discussed throughout the semester in this class. The organization of this website was also very helpful because it laid everything out and made it simple for students to find the topic that they needed more information on whatever topic they found to be a little confusing or not clear. Just like the Cause and Effect website, the Mission Critical website also came along with different exercises for every single concept that was explained. Having the exercises there made it so much easier because they also were given a detailed explanation as to why that was the answer and how come it was a better choice than any other one. I am very glad that there are sites like these out there on the web because they help out students a lot more than a simple textbook can. They also encourage students to try to use other resources outside of the text so that they can understand the concept from different perspectives.

Usefulness of the Cause and Effect Website

I thought that the Cause and Effect website was extremely helpful. It makes it so much easier for me and perhaps a few others to understand something when it is organized and that is exactly what was presented on the website. Everything was explained in simple terms and in great detail so just about anyone could understand the material and take something from it. I also really liked how the author of the website took the examples that he or she gave and broke them down and provided reasoning behind each one of why it would be better or worse and whatnot. Additionally, the exercises that came along with the website were very useful and beneficial to the reader. They were a good variety of questions that asked each reader about what they had learned in the passage and challenged them to think about what would be the right answer instead of what most exercises do by making it so simple that the answer is obvious.

Fallacy of Composition

One concept that I had found in Epstein’s text was towards the end of the chapter. The concept fallacy of composition is when the truth of an individual is also true for a group of individuals in an argument. This concept could also ring true if the truth for a group of individuals is also true for one individual. This concept can be seen in reasoning by analogy because most individuals come up with their analogies from groups and individuals. However, since the groups and individuals are so different it sometimes is too good to be true for the analogy to be valid. Although this concept is not discussed in detail in the text, I still thought it was interesting because I have not been able to find an example in my life because throughout this entire course, I have always been able to find an example in my life however this is the one time I have not been able to.

Reasoning by Criteria

The type of reasoning that I thought was a little difficult to understand was reasoning by criteria. After doing additional research, I was able to fully understand the definition of this concept. Reasoning by criteria is when you come to a conclusion or premise that is backed up by certain information or facts that are related to the argument. In other words, you make your conclusion based on the given information that you have about the person or situation at hand. One example could be that your best friend loves sports and in particular football. You tried really hard to think of the perfect Christmas gift for him that he has not gotten before, but you cannot find anything. You rely on the information that you know about him (the fact that he likes sports especially football) in order to narrow down your options for possible gifts. After coming up with different ideas, you result to giving him an authentic jersey of his favorite player.

Examples of the Different Types of Reasoning

Reasoning by Analogy- Students are like worker bees because they are constantly studying and doing work for their classes.

Sign Reasoning- When the fire alarm is going off in the kitchen, something is burning.

Casual Reasoning- The girls all got food poisoning when they were at the restaurant. They all ordered different entrees but had the same appetizer so they must have gotten sick from the appetizer.

Reasoning by Criteria- My friend likes giraffes so I sent her a giraffe birthday card.

Reasoning by Example- You should really learn how to cook. My dad never learned so now he has to rely on my mom for just about every meal throughout the day.

Inductive- Every morning I wake up and make my bed before I do anything else so tomorrow morning when I wake up, I will make my bed before anything else.0020

Deductive- All students must take English 1A/B and pass the WST in order to enroll in upper division courses. Julie is a student at SJSU therefore she must take English 1A/B and pass the WST in order to begin her upper division courses.

Appeal to Emotion Continued

One idea that I thought was interesting that I found in the reading was the box on page 194 at the very bottom that stated “An appeal to emotion in an argument with a prescriptive conclusion can be good or can be bad.” On the next page, the box in the middle states that “Any appeal to emotion with a descriptive conclusion is bad, if the appeal cannot be deleted as premise.” I found this to be very interesting because in previous chapters, we have learned that we are supposed to elaborate in communication, yet in this chapter, it is telling us to avoid giving as much detail as possible in order to use the concept of appeal to emotion correctly in a discussion. Although what the textbook is saying makes sense, I found it very interesting because I sometime catch myself not giving as much detail as I normally would in order to make a good argument.

Page 195

3. Find  an advertisement that uses an appeal to fear. Is it a good argument?

Although I could not find the example online, I saw a commercial on TV a few days ago for Allstate Insurance. It showed a someone who was in a car accident all alone and then all of a sudden, someone else comes to help them along with a police officer, tow truck, and then their insurance agent. As the commercial continues, there are images of the individual who was in the car wreck being supported by all who had arrived on the scene and at the close of the commercial, it says something along the lines of “Aren’t you glad that you’re in good hands?” This is a perfect example in regards to the concept of appeal to fear because it shows the other side of the concept that could be seen positively. Even though it does not directly put viewers into a fearful state, it does urge them to change their insurance policy from whatever it was before to Allstate because their customers “are in good hands.”

Appeal to Emotion

The concept of Appeal to Emotion is an argument that is greatly affected by one’s emotions regarding the idea. If the argument brings up a point that results in affecting an individual’s feelings, this concept could be applied. There are many different subtypes to this concept. One is appeal to pity which is when an individual feels sympathy for a certain individual or cause and makes them want to reach out and help. Another type is appeal to fear which is commonly used in campaigns. This type makes individuals feel like they have to do whatever the speaker is saying or else everything could be their fault. An example could be found in the campaign ads for the upcoming election. Many advertisements leave individuals fearful for the future if they do not cast their vote. Because of this, many voters consider what the advertisement says in order to avoid whatever could come in the future. Appeal to spite, another subtype to the concept of appeal to emotion, is all about revenge and the common belief that two wrongs make a right. The Appeal to Emotion that strikes me is appeal to fear because I have seen so much of it recently especially in on TV and radio in regards to the election. Many advertisements left me feeling uneasy about the way I was going to vote and caused me to constantly be thinking if I was making the right decision.

Shift in the Burden of Proof, defined

One concept that I thought could use further research was the shift in the burden of proof claim found in Chapter 9 of Epstein’s text. In the textbook, there is no actual definition of the shift in the burden of proof, however, online the following definition is given: the burden of proof principle is when the individual who is challenging the argument as the individual who is supporting the argument to give them evidence to support their argument. In return, the supporter should give the other individual the information he or she wants in order to prove their point. However, when the individual does not respond with proof to the statement, the concept of burden of proof is applied because there is no proof given in the argument. After reading the website definition, everything made much more sense than before and I was able to fully understand the examples and everything else in that section of the book.

http://www.limbicnutrition.com/blog/resources/a-code-of-conduct-for-effective-rational-discussion/#toc-the-burden-of-proof-principle

Chapter 8

One major concept that I found interesting in Chapter 8 was generalities. According to Epstein, there are two types of generalities: precise and vague generalities. Precise generalities are exact and to the point; there is no guessing made in the statement. However, in order to be a precise generality, not one part of the statement can be false; the entire thing has to be true. Vague generalities are generalizations that do not indicate the number; instead they use words such as all, almost, many, most, and much more. Generalizations using these particular words would be considered vague generalities because they do not specifically state exactly how many and it also leaves individuals to analyze whether the statement is true or false. Although the statement may be vague, it gives individuals a good reason to believe whether or not each statement is true or false. I thought these two concepts were interesting because I personally use a lot of precise generalizations, however, I never thought that they could have the possibility of being false. After reading this, can now see my mistakes and can communicate more clearly than before.

Usefulness of Course Assignments

Even though the projects have been a little challenging, I overall really enjoyed them. I thought that the topics were pretty interesting having the second project be my favorite so far. I like how we had to choose an organization and completely pull it apart and analyze it according to the different topics that we have been discussing in our blogs and reading about in the textbook. It was a little challenging working with a group online, it was still a great learning experience because it is always nice to have an idea of what it might be like if I were to have to do a project completely online in the work world. I hope that I can use everything that I am learning in this class in the future for my other classes that I have to take and in whatever career path I choose! Thanks for reading :)

Refuting Directly and Indirectly

One concept that I found interesting was in Chapter 7, refuting directly and indirectly. There are three direct ways of refuting an argument according to Epstein:

1. Show that one of the ideas is doubtful.

2. Show that the argument is neither valid nor strong.

3. Show that that conclusion is completely untrue. 

By following these three steps, an individual can refute the argument directly at the source. These steps show that the argument cannot be fixed and therefore needs to be completely reconstructed in order to become a strong argument. At times, individuals may know that the argument is wrong but do not have the proof to show others the other side of the argument that is true. However, there are times where individuals are able to see that the argument that the other individual is trying to make is not true at all which leads to absurdity. Reducing to the absurd is where one or several claims are shown to be as false leading to the entire argument being false as well.

Chapter 7

In Chapter 7 of Epstein’s text, I learned that by raising objections in an argument, you are pointing out that the reason is invalid and therefore bad. By raising objections, individuals are creating another argument which is either calling the idea doubtful or is showing the other individuals who are involved in the conversation that the argument presented was extremely weak. If an individual “knocks off” an objection to your argument, it can be seen as smaller argument within the bigger argument that was first brought up. I found this very interesting because everyone does this on a daily basis without even knowing it. I personally do this countless times throughout my day and it goes unnoticed. After doing the reading and posting this blog, I was able to see how this really does ring true in arguments, both strong and weak, valid and invalid, that surface in everyday life.

Chapter 6: Consider the Alternatives

In the first part of Chapter 6 in Epstein’s text, he focuses on the alternatives in arguments. A compound claim is when two or more claims are linked together by a certain word, however, the claim is still seen as one idea. The word that links the claims together is known as an alternative. Alternatives can be both strong and weak; the stronger the alternative is, the stronger the argument will be. A good alternative would be or or therefore because they follow the same criteria for a valid argument. Contradictory of a claim, also known as negation, is when the claim “has the opposite truth-value” (Epstein 114). Along with the contradictory of a claim comes the contradictory of an or claim. In this type of claim, one idea and another idea are linked and contradicted by the word or. On the other hand, contradictory of an and claim is where one idea and another are linked and contradicted by the word and. Finally, Epstein talks about false dilemmas which are claims that have a bad use of not including the chance for the ”or” in the claim to be unbelievable.

Principle of Rational Discussion

The principle of rational discussion is used in conversation by all individuals who are partaking in the conversation going on. The first condition is that the participants know and understand the subject that is being discussed, are able and willing to come to a mutual decision, and are telling the whole truth. By sticking to these guidelines, the individuals who are participating in the conversation will be able to stick to the topic and idea on hand and will not veer away to a tangent.

Every time she orders a hamburger, she always says no tomato. Therefore, she does not like tomatoes.

Analysis: Because she ordered her hamburger without tomato does not automatically mean that she does not like tomatoes. She could possibly not be craving a tomato on her hamburger or might not like tomatoes on her hamburger but likes it on her salad. Instead of coming to a direct conclusion, individuals should get to know the person before making a direct decision.

Internet Advertisement

http://www.stanford.edu/class/linguist34/advertisements/43aveda/43aveda.jpg

I found this advertisement online and I found it very interesting. I have never used this brand before; however, I found that the advertisement had said all the right words to motivate someone to purchase their products. Within the description, they had used terms that any woman who is reading the advertisement in a magazine or whatever other reading source that they happen to be flipping through. In reality, the person who purchases this product might feel exactly how the paragraph describes how each user is going to feel when they use the product for only the first few uses. After a week or two of using the product, the individual will become accustomed to the “feelings” that are given by the product. Additionally, the individual who purchases this product will not actually feel the feelings that are portrayed; they will be thinking those feelings because they feel that they have to after buying the product.

5 Common Mistakes in Evaluating Premises

One section that I thought was interesting was Section D in Chapter 5 which talked about typical mistakes that can be found when evaluating ideas. The first common mistake is arguing backwards. This means that when presented with an argument, the listener believes that the argument sounds rational which leads to the conclusion being rational as well. On the contrary, an argument is supposed to sway us to think that the conclusion is plausible, not that the idea is not true at all. The second common mistake is confusing a possibility with plausibility. Simply enough, individuals tend to confuse the difference between a possible argument and a plausible argument which are two completely different things. A possible argument has the chances that it could be false while a plausible argument is credible and rings true. The third mistake is bad appeals to authority. This means that because people see others accepting a particular idea, they automatically accept it as well without thinking the argument through. The fourth mistake is mistaking the person for the claim. In other words, an individual disregards an idea simply because it came from a person who they might not see as reliable. Finally, the fifth common mistake is mistaking the person for the argument. This mistake is similar to the fourth common mistake, however, instead of rejecting the claim, individuals reject the argument that the unreliable individual makes.

Organizational Communication

One topic that I found interesting was organizational communication which can be found in the Essential Guide to Group Communication text. Because there are millions of organizations throughout the world, organizational communication is key to having a successful group. Organizational communication is the process that “involves the exchange of messages between organizational members or among members of different organizations” (Wiemann 54). Organizational communication rules and norms are valid when certain group members are communicating with one another group of members. The reason behind this is because it is then much easier for all individuals involved to be able to communicate the correct message from one another. The main reason why individuals want to have good organizational communication is because it allows all individuals involved to become successful in whatever task they are trying to take on. Additionally, it is extremely helpful for individuals to fully understand the group that they are trying to communicate with because it brings down all of the barriers that are holding the group back from succeeding to their fullest potential.

Structure of Arguments

2. I am on my way to school (1). I left five minutes late (2). Traffic is heavy (3). Therefore, I’ll be late for class (4). So I might as well stop and get breakfast (5).

Argument: Yes

Conclusion: Should not rush to school because there is heavy traffic so might as well get breakfast.

Additional premises needed? Instead of rushing to school and missing class, might as well take your time and relax. Rushing will not only stress an individual out, but it will cause a chaotic mess as well.

Identify any subargument: Sentences 2 and 3 support sentence 4. Sentences 2, 3, and 4 support sentence 5.

Good argument? I think that this is a good argument, however, it could be better. However,

I think that this exercise was alright. It certainly was not one of my favorite assignments, however, it was not as bad as it could have been. It was useful because I had to take a part an argument and this exercise made me do that.

Content Fallacies

Bad appeal to common belief is one of the many content fallacies that can be found in Epstein’s text. The overall meaning of this fallacy is that the reason why most people do something, even if it is bad, is because they see others doing it which causes them to think that it is acceptable to do the same. Since the action is believed to be acceptable, society carries on with their daily life performing that action without any guiltily feeling left at the end of the day. One example that can be seen just about every day is swearing. Swearing under any circumstance is not okay, however, the majority of the population swears on a daily basis. Because everyone swears, society automatically thinks that it is alright for them to do the same. However, most people take serious offense to this because they see it as a disrespectful way to talk to someone.

Tests for an Argument to Be Good

According to Epstein, there are three tests an individual must take in order to claim that an argument is good. They are the following:


1. The idea is both reasonable and believable.
2. The idea is more believable than the conclusion.
3. The argument is either valid nor strong, not both.

An example would be that I had heard a rumor at work that if I taught over 300 kids in the swim lesson program this year, I would get a five dollar an hour raise. After hearing this, I had worked extremely hard trying to not only do my best teaching the children I had on a regular basis, but trying to get the word out that I was a good instructor hoping to be requested. By the end of the year, I had taught about 320 kids in the program which qualified me to getting the five dollar an hour raise.

This argument would follow the first test because the idea is both reasonable and believable because my boss is extremely generous to her employees. The second test is not possible for the idea to be true and the conclusion to be false because I had heard from other employees that it had happened to them in the past (but they could have gotten the raise for another reason). And finally, the third test defines the argument to be valid because it was based on a rumor started by other employees and not stated by my boss.

Strong versus Valid Arguments

A strong argument can be defined as a statement that has an accurate idea but also has an inaccurate conclusion. An ideal strong argument would have an accurate idea and inaccurate conclusion that occur at the same time as one another. A valid argument is when the accurate idea and inaccurate conclusion cannot be applied at the same time. In other words, there is no promising way for the idea and the conclusion to be false at the same moment. Epstein believes that a strong argument is better than a valid argument that ends with the same conclusion.


An example of a strong argument would be that the blue books that many students use for an exam in a class are not always blue. They can usually be found in green or yellow. This would be a strong argument because the idea is true and the conclusion is false. An example of a valid argument would be that the blue books that many students use for an exam in a class are never blue. They can only be found in green or yellow. This is an example of a valid argument because neither the idea nor the conclusion are false at the same time; there are blue books that are actually blue, however, they are not as common.

Plausible and Implausible Claims

In the text, Epstein talks about plausible and implausible claims. Plausible claims can be defined as when an individual has a very good reason to believe that the point that is being made is true and valid. An example of a plausible claim would be that little girls love the color pink. This would be a plausible claim because young girls are taught that the color pink is associated with girls resulting in them loving the color pink and anything and everything that comes in that shade. An implausible claim, otherwise known as a dubious claim, is a claim that leaves an individual to feel like there is no way that the point being made is true and valid. An example of this would be that cats bark. This statement is completely not true because cats do not bark. This statement would be a perfect example because everyone knows that cats do not bark which completes the definition of an implausible claim.

Descriptive and Prescriptive Claims

Descriptive and prescriptive claims are two concepts that Epstein talks about in his text. A descriptive claim is when the statement is clear and to the point. An example of this would be that it is illegal to be in a car without having your seatbelt fastened. This statement would be a descriptive claim because it is saying exactly what it means with no way of getting around it. On the other hand, a prescriptive claim is a statement that is not as obvious as a descriptive claim, but recommends how something ought to be. For example, Jane should wear her seatbelt when she is sitting in the car even if she is not the driver. This is a prescriptive claim because it is recommending Jane to do something rather than commanding her to do it. Another concept that ties in with prescriptive claims is value judgment. A value judgment is when individuals should do or choose to do the right thing in the particular situation that they might be in rather than choosing or doing what is wrong and dishonest. This would be described as a perspective claim because the individual is doing what they should do.

Subjective Claims and Objective Claims

Subjective claims are statements that are based upon personal opinions that reflect how the individual or group of individuals “think, believe, or feel” (Epstein 20). One of my friends and I are planning an event and we were discussing centerpieces and decorations. Since the theme of the event is a tea party, I had pictured a simple, small bouquet of pretty flowers that would go along with the garden theme while my friend imagined a bigger center piece. I told her that the big centerpiece would fit well because, in my opinion, large centerpieces are for evening events indoors while our event was during the day and outdoors. This would be a subjective claim because I told her my opinion about her idea and although it was a good idea, I believe it wasn’t the right look we were going for.


On the other hand, objective claims are statements that do not convey opinions but give specifics. Because objective claims state “impersonal standards,” they focus on events and facts (Epstein 20). Another example could be seen in the event that my friend and I are planning. A few days ago, we were making a list with everything that we needed to order and one of the items on the list was tables. We decided that we needed about twenty tables so that the guests at the event would be able to have a place to sit and have their tea. This would be an objective claim because it is stating a simple fact, not an opinion or belief.

Vague Statement

This morning, I went grocery shopping and as I was going down the aisles, I heard over the intercom that someone’s silver car was parked in the loading zone and needed to be moved or else the manager would have to call the towing company to tow the car. The person who made the announcement gave no other detail of the car like the make, model, or even the license plate number. Immediately, I thought could this be my car because I too drive a silver car, however, I know for a fact that I did not park in the loading zone. About five minutes later, they made the announcement again, but they still didn’t mention any other details about the car. This announcement qualifies as a vague sentence because it gave no other information other than the car that needed to be moved was silver. It would have been more helpful and effective if they gave additional information such as the make, model, license plate, or anything else that would help distinguish the car.

Introductory Post

My name is Ramina Yadegar. I am a chemistry major and I'm starting my sophomore year at SJSU. I'm from San Jose and went to Presentation High School. I like horoscopes, shopping, swimming, working out, watching movies, going to the beach, reading, listening to music, and hanging out with my friends. This is the second communication class that I have taken; I took Comm 10 in Fall 2009 and loved it. Other than that I haven't had much experience in communications. I hope to learn a lot from this class!