One concept that I found interesting was in Chapter 7, refuting directly and indirectly. There are three direct ways of refuting an argument according to Epstein:
1. Show that one of the ideas is doubtful.
2. Show that the argument is neither valid nor strong.
3. Show that that conclusion is completely untrue.
By following these three steps, an individual can refute the argument directly at the source. These steps show that the argument cannot be fixed and therefore needs to be completely reconstructed in order to become a strong argument. At times, individuals may know that the argument is wrong but do not have the proof to show others the other side of the argument that is true. However, there are times where individuals are able to see that the argument that the other individual is trying to make is not true at all which leads to absurdity. Reducing to the absurd is where one or several claims are shown to be as false leading to the entire argument being false as well.
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